![\"\"](\"https:\/\/meddists.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/urinary_system-1.png\")
<\/a>Kidneys<\/h3>\n<\/span>\n\n\nThe kidneys are paired, bean-shaped organs found in the posterior upper abdomen.<\/p>\n\n\n<\/span>\nFunctions<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\nThe kidneys can essentially be seen as highly sophisticated blood filters.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- Regulation of blood pressure, osmolarity, acid-base balance, and ion homeostasis<\/li>
- Excretion of metabolites and waste products<\/li>
- Endocrine functions:
- Produce renin<\/li>
- Activate vitamin D<\/li>
- Produce erythropoitein (promoting RBC production)<\/li><\/ol><\/li><\/ol>\n\n\n<\/span>\n
Location<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\nThe kidneys are located within the retroperitoneum (primary retroperitoneal) to the sides of the vertebral column.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- The left kidney is located at the level of T12 to L3<\/strong><\/li>
- The right kidney is slightly lower (due to the presence of the liver)<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n<\/span>\n
Syntopy<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\n- Right kidney<\/strong> \u2014 Liver, duodenum, ascending colon<\/li>
- Left kidney<\/strong> \u2014 Stomach, spleen, pancreas, jejunum, descending colon<\/li>
- Both kidneys<\/strong> \u2013 Diaphragm, psoas major, quadratus lumbarum, and transversus abdominis muscles<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n<\/span>\n
Capsule<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\nThe kidneys are covered by a fascia and fat (listed from inside-out):<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- Renal capsule<\/li>
- Perirenal (or perinephric) fat
- The suprarenal glands are embedded within the perirenal fat and are separated from the kidneys by a thin septum<\/li><\/ul><\/li>
- Renal fascia (also known as Gerota\u2019s fascia<\/strong>)<\/li>
- Pararenal (or paranephric) fat<\/li><\/ol>\n\n\n\n
The kidneys are held in place by collagen bundles, tethering of the neurovasculature, and the layers covering them.<\/p>\n\n\n<\/span>\nParts and surfaces<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\n- The upper pole of the kidneys houses the suprarenal (or adrenal) glands, embedded in perirenal fat<\/li>
- The medial border of the kidneys is concave, forming the hilum<\/strong> through which the neurovasculature, and the renal pelvis<\/strong> attach
- The renal pelvis forms a funnel-like channel that conveys urine from the kidneys to the ureters<\/strong>, essentially forming their origin<\/li>
- The organization of the structures in the hilum is vein-artery-pelvis <\/strong>from anterior to posterior<\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n\n<\/span>\n
Internal organization of the kidneys<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\nThe kidney consists of an outer, reddish cortex, and a much lighter medulla.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- The cortex contains the glomeruli and convoluted tubules<\/li>
- The medulla consists of cone-shaped structures known as pyramids<\/strong> which contain the straight tubules and collecting ducts
- There are 8 to 12 (and sometimes more) pyramids present in each kidney<\/li>
- Their base faces the cortex, and the apex (known as papilla<\/strong>) faces the hilum of the kidney<\/li>
- The papilla projects into a minor calyx<\/strong>; 2-3 minor calyces form a major calyx<\/strong>; 2-3 major calyces end in the renal pelvis<\/li>
- The renal pelvis becomes continuous with the ureters at the ureteropelvic junction<\/strong><\/li><\/ul><\/li>
- The renal columns of Bertin <\/strong>are the cortical tissue contained within the medulla (essentially, when you \u201ccut out\u201d the pyramids from the medulla)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/meddists.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/kidney-1024x585.png\")
<\/a>Figure 2. The internal organization of the kidney<\/strong> (Credit: OpenStax, CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<\/span>\nNeurovasculature<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\nBlood supply<\/strong><\/td>Renal arteries<\/strong> from the abdominal aorta, split into 5 segmental branches<\/td><\/tr>Venous drainage<\/strong><\/td>Through the renal veins<\/strong> into the IVC
The left renal vein is joined by the left suprarenal and gonadal veins<\/td><\/tr>Innervation<\/strong><\/td>Intermesenteric plexus<\/strong>, from the greater, lesser, and least splanchnic (sympathetic) and vagus (parasympathetic)<\/td><\/tr>Lymphatic drainage<\/strong><\/td>Lumbar lymph nodes<\/strong> (caval and aortic)<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>Table 1. Neurovasculature of the kidneys<\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n<\/span>\nUreters<\/h3>\n<\/span>\n\n\nThe ureters are 25-30cm long muscular tubes that convey urine from the kidneys to the bladder.<\/p>\n\n\n<\/span>\nParts<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\nThe ureters can be divided into 3 parts:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- Abdominal part<\/strong>. From the ureteropelvic junction just below the renal pelvis to the pelvic brim.<\/li>
- Pelvic part<\/strong>. From the pelvic brim to the bladder.<\/li>
- Intravesical <\/strong>(or intramural<\/strong>) part<\/strong>. The smallest part, penetrating the bladder wall.<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n<\/span>\n
Path<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\n- The ureters descend on the psoas major muscle within the retroperitoneum<\/li>
- Cross with the testicular\/ovarian vessels<\/li>
- Before reaching the pelvic brim, they cross with the common\/external iliac vessels, running in front of them<\/li>
- They enter the pelvic cavity and continue towards the bladder, piercing through its wall<\/li><\/ol>\n\n\n<\/span>\n
Constrictions<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\nThroughout their path, the ureters are constricted in four points:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- Ureteropelvic junction<\/li>
- First crossing (testicular\/ovarian vessels)<\/li>
- Second crossing (common\/external iliac vessels)<\/li>
- Uretrovesical junction (as it pierces through the wall of the bladder)<\/li><\/ol>\n\n\n\n
These constrictions are frequent locations for kidney stones to become stuck at.<\/p>\n\n\n<\/span>\nNeurovasculature<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\nBlood supply<\/strong><\/td>The abdominal parts are supplied by the renal arteries<\/strong> and may receive branches directly from the abdominal aorta and the testicular\/ovarian arteries
The pelvic parts are supplied by branches of the internal iliac arteries<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>Venous drainage<\/strong><\/td>The venous drainage occurs through the accompanying veins:
The abdominal parts drain to the renal veins <\/strong>and the testicular\/gonadal veins
The pelvic part drains to the internal iliac artery<\/strong> <\/td><\/tr>Innervation<\/strong><\/td>Intermesenteric plexus<\/strong>, from the greater, lesser and least splanchnic (sympathetic) and vagus (parasympathetic).<\/td><\/tr>Lymphatic drainage<\/strong><\/td>The abdominal part drains to the lumbar<\/strong> and common iliac nodes<\/strong>
The pelvic part drains to the external and internal iliac node<\/strong> <\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>Table 2. Neurovasculature of the ureters<\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/span>
Functions<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\nThe kidneys can essentially be seen as highly sophisticated blood filters.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- Regulation of blood pressure, osmolarity, acid-base balance, and ion homeostasis<\/li>
- Excretion of metabolites and waste products<\/li>
- Endocrine functions:
- Produce renin<\/li>
- Activate vitamin D<\/li>
- Produce erythropoitein (promoting RBC production)<\/li><\/ol><\/li><\/ol>\n\n\n<\/span>\n
Location<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\nThe kidneys are located within the retroperitoneum (primary retroperitoneal) to the sides of the vertebral column.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- The left kidney is located at the level of T12 to L3<\/strong><\/li>
- The right kidney is slightly lower (due to the presence of the liver)<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n<\/span>\n
Syntopy<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\n- Right kidney<\/strong> \u2014 Liver, duodenum, ascending colon<\/li>
- Left kidney<\/strong> \u2014 Stomach, spleen, pancreas, jejunum, descending colon<\/li>
- Both kidneys<\/strong> \u2013 Diaphragm, psoas major, quadratus lumbarum, and transversus abdominis muscles<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n<\/span>\n
Capsule<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\nThe kidneys are covered by a fascia and fat (listed from inside-out):<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- Renal capsule<\/li>
- Perirenal (or perinephric) fat
- The suprarenal glands are embedded within the perirenal fat and are separated from the kidneys by a thin septum<\/li><\/ul><\/li>
- Renal fascia (also known as Gerota\u2019s fascia<\/strong>)<\/li>
- Pararenal (or paranephric) fat<\/li><\/ol>\n\n\n\n
The kidneys are held in place by collagen bundles, tethering of the neurovasculature, and the layers covering them.<\/p>\n\n\n<\/span>\nParts and surfaces<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\n- The upper pole of the kidneys houses the suprarenal (or adrenal) glands, embedded in perirenal fat<\/li>
- The medial border of the kidneys is concave, forming the hilum<\/strong> through which the neurovasculature, and the renal pelvis<\/strong> attach
- The renal pelvis forms a funnel-like channel that conveys urine from the kidneys to the ureters<\/strong>, essentially forming their origin<\/li>
- The organization of the structures in the hilum is vein-artery-pelvis <\/strong>from anterior to posterior<\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n\n<\/span>\n
Internal organization of the kidneys<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\nThe kidney consists of an outer, reddish cortex, and a much lighter medulla.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- The cortex contains the glomeruli and convoluted tubules<\/li>
- The medulla consists of cone-shaped structures known as pyramids<\/strong> which contain the straight tubules and collecting ducts
- There are 8 to 12 (and sometimes more) pyramids present in each kidney<\/li>
- Their base faces the cortex, and the apex (known as papilla<\/strong>) faces the hilum of the kidney<\/li>
- The papilla projects into a minor calyx<\/strong>; 2-3 minor calyces form a major calyx<\/strong>; 2-3 major calyces end in the renal pelvis<\/li>
- The renal pelvis becomes continuous with the ureters at the ureteropelvic junction<\/strong><\/li><\/ul><\/li>
- The renal columns of Bertin <\/strong>are the cortical tissue contained within the medulla (essentially, when you \u201ccut out\u201d the pyramids from the medulla)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n\n<\/a>
Figure 2. The internal organization of the kidney<\/strong> (Credit: OpenStax, CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<\/span>\nNeurovasculature<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\nBlood supply<\/strong><\/td>Renal arteries<\/strong> from the abdominal aorta, split into 5 segmental branches<\/td><\/tr>Venous drainage<\/strong><\/td>Through the renal veins<\/strong> into the IVC
The left renal vein is joined by the left suprarenal and gonadal veins<\/td><\/tr>Innervation<\/strong><\/td>Intermesenteric plexus<\/strong>, from the greater, lesser, and least splanchnic (sympathetic) and vagus (parasympathetic)<\/td><\/tr>Lymphatic drainage<\/strong><\/td>Lumbar lymph nodes<\/strong> (caval and aortic)<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>Table 1. Neurovasculature of the kidneys<\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n<\/span>\nUreters<\/h3>\n<\/span>\n\n\nThe ureters are 25-30cm long muscular tubes that convey urine from the kidneys to the bladder.<\/p>\n\n\n<\/span>\nParts<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\nThe ureters can be divided into 3 parts:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- Abdominal part<\/strong>. From the ureteropelvic junction just below the renal pelvis to the pelvic brim.<\/li>
- Pelvic part<\/strong>. From the pelvic brim to the bladder.<\/li>
- Intravesical <\/strong>(or intramural<\/strong>) part<\/strong>. The smallest part, penetrating the bladder wall.<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n<\/span>\n
Path<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\n- The ureters descend on the psoas major muscle within the retroperitoneum<\/li>
- Cross with the testicular\/ovarian vessels<\/li>
- Before reaching the pelvic brim, they cross with the common\/external iliac vessels, running in front of them<\/li>
- They enter the pelvic cavity and continue towards the bladder, piercing through its wall<\/li><\/ol>\n\n\n<\/span>\n
Constrictions<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\nThroughout their path, the ureters are constricted in four points:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- Ureteropelvic junction<\/li>
- First crossing (testicular\/ovarian vessels)<\/li>
- Second crossing (common\/external iliac vessels)<\/li>
- Uretrovesical junction (as it pierces through the wall of the bladder)<\/li><\/ol>\n\n\n\n
These constrictions are frequent locations for kidney stones to become stuck at.<\/p>\n\n\n<\/span>\nNeurovasculature<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\nBlood supply<\/strong><\/td>The abdominal parts are supplied by the renal arteries<\/strong> and may receive branches directly from the abdominal aorta and the testicular\/ovarian arteries
The pelvic parts are supplied by branches of the internal iliac arteries<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>Venous drainage<\/strong><\/td>The venous drainage occurs through the accompanying veins:
The abdominal parts drain to the renal veins <\/strong>and the testicular\/gonadal veins
The pelvic part drains to the internal iliac artery<\/strong> <\/td><\/tr>Innervation<\/strong><\/td>Intermesenteric plexus<\/strong>, from the greater, lesser and least splanchnic (sympathetic) and vagus (parasympathetic).<\/td><\/tr>Lymphatic drainage<\/strong><\/td>The abdominal part drains to the lumbar<\/strong> and common iliac nodes<\/strong>
The pelvic part drains to the external and internal iliac node<\/strong> <\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>Table 2. Neurovasculature of the ureters<\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/span>
- Produce renin<\/li>
- Activate vitamin D<\/li>
- Produce erythropoitein (promoting RBC production)<\/li><\/ol><\/li><\/ol>\n\n\n<\/span>\n
Location<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\n
The kidneys are located within the retroperitoneum (primary retroperitoneal) to the sides of the vertebral column.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- The left kidney is located at the level of T12 to L3<\/strong><\/li>
- The right kidney is slightly lower (due to the presence of the liver)<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n<\/span>\n
Syntopy<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\n
- Right kidney<\/strong> \u2014 Liver, duodenum, ascending colon<\/li>
- Left kidney<\/strong> \u2014 Stomach, spleen, pancreas, jejunum, descending colon<\/li>
- Both kidneys<\/strong> \u2013 Diaphragm, psoas major, quadratus lumbarum, and transversus abdominis muscles<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n<\/span>\n
Capsule<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\n
The kidneys are covered by a fascia and fat (listed from inside-out):<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- Renal capsule<\/li>
- Perirenal (or perinephric) fat
- The suprarenal glands are embedded within the perirenal fat and are separated from the kidneys by a thin septum<\/li><\/ul><\/li>
- Renal fascia (also known as Gerota\u2019s fascia<\/strong>)<\/li>
- Pararenal (or paranephric) fat<\/li><\/ol>\n\n\n\n
The kidneys are held in place by collagen bundles, tethering of the neurovasculature, and the layers covering them.<\/p>\n\n\n<\/span>\n
Parts and surfaces<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\n
- The upper pole of the kidneys houses the suprarenal (or adrenal) glands, embedded in perirenal fat<\/li>
- The medial border of the kidneys is concave, forming the hilum<\/strong> through which the neurovasculature, and the renal pelvis<\/strong> attach
- The renal pelvis forms a funnel-like channel that conveys urine from the kidneys to the ureters<\/strong>, essentially forming their origin<\/li>
- The organization of the structures in the hilum is vein-artery-pelvis <\/strong>from anterior to posterior<\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n
\n<\/span>\nInternal organization of the kidneys<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\n
The kidney consists of an outer, reddish cortex, and a much lighter medulla.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- The cortex contains the glomeruli and convoluted tubules<\/li>
- The medulla consists of cone-shaped structures known as pyramids<\/strong> which contain the straight tubules and collecting ducts
- There are 8 to 12 (and sometimes more) pyramids present in each kidney<\/li>
- Their base faces the cortex, and the apex (known as papilla<\/strong>) faces the hilum of the kidney<\/li>
- The papilla projects into a minor calyx<\/strong>; 2-3 minor calyces form a major calyx<\/strong>; 2-3 major calyces end in the renal pelvis<\/li>
- The renal pelvis becomes continuous with the ureters at the ureteropelvic junction<\/strong><\/li><\/ul><\/li>
- The renal columns of Bertin <\/strong>are the cortical tissue contained within the medulla (essentially, when you \u201ccut out\u201d the pyramids from the medulla)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n
\n<\/a>Figure 2. The internal organization of the kidney<\/strong> (Credit: OpenStax, CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<\/span>\n Neurovasculature<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\n
Blood supply<\/strong><\/td> Renal arteries<\/strong> from the abdominal aorta, split into 5 segmental branches<\/td><\/tr> Venous drainage<\/strong><\/td> Through the renal veins<\/strong> into the IVC
The left renal vein is joined by the left suprarenal and gonadal veins<\/td><\/tr>Innervation<\/strong><\/td> Intermesenteric plexus<\/strong>, from the greater, lesser, and least splanchnic (sympathetic) and vagus (parasympathetic)<\/td><\/tr> Lymphatic drainage<\/strong><\/td> Lumbar lymph nodes<\/strong> (caval and aortic)<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table> Table 1. Neurovasculature of the kidneys<\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n<\/span>\n Ureters<\/h3>\n<\/span>\n\n\n
The ureters are 25-30cm long muscular tubes that convey urine from the kidneys to the bladder.<\/p>\n\n\n<\/span>\n
Parts<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\n
The ureters can be divided into 3 parts:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- Abdominal part<\/strong>. From the ureteropelvic junction just below the renal pelvis to the pelvic brim.<\/li>
- Pelvic part<\/strong>. From the pelvic brim to the bladder.<\/li>
- Intravesical <\/strong>(or intramural<\/strong>) part<\/strong>. The smallest part, penetrating the bladder wall.<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n<\/span>\n
Path<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\n
- The ureters descend on the psoas major muscle within the retroperitoneum<\/li>
- Cross with the testicular\/ovarian vessels<\/li>
- Before reaching the pelvic brim, they cross with the common\/external iliac vessels, running in front of them<\/li>
- They enter the pelvic cavity and continue towards the bladder, piercing through its wall<\/li><\/ol>\n\n\n<\/span>\n
Constrictions<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\n
Throughout their path, the ureters are constricted in four points:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- Ureteropelvic junction<\/li>
- First crossing (testicular\/ovarian vessels)<\/li>
- Second crossing (common\/external iliac vessels)<\/li>
- Uretrovesical junction (as it pierces through the wall of the bladder)<\/li><\/ol>\n\n\n\n
These constrictions are frequent locations for kidney stones to become stuck at.<\/p>\n\n\n<\/span>\n
Neurovasculature<\/h4>\n<\/span>\n\n\n
Blood supply<\/strong><\/td> The abdominal parts are supplied by the renal arteries<\/strong> and may receive branches directly from the abdominal aorta and the testicular\/ovarian arteries
The pelvic parts are supplied by branches of the internal iliac arteries<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>Venous drainage<\/strong><\/td> The venous drainage occurs through the accompanying veins:
The abdominal parts drain to the renal veins <\/strong>and the testicular\/gonadal veins
The pelvic part drains to the internal iliac artery<\/strong> <\/td><\/tr>Innervation<\/strong><\/td> Intermesenteric plexus<\/strong>, from the greater, lesser and least splanchnic (sympathetic) and vagus (parasympathetic).<\/td><\/tr> Lymphatic drainage<\/strong><\/td> The abdominal part drains to the lumbar<\/strong> and common iliac nodes<\/strong>
The pelvic part drains to the external and internal iliac node<\/strong> <\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>Table 2. Neurovasculature of the ureters<\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/span>
- Pelvic part<\/strong>. From the pelvic brim to the bladder.<\/li>
- The papilla projects into a minor calyx<\/strong>; 2-3 minor calyces form a major calyx<\/strong>; 2-3 major calyces end in the renal pelvis<\/li>
- The organization of the structures in the hilum is vein-artery-pelvis <\/strong>from anterior to posterior<\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n
- The renal pelvis forms a funnel-like channel that conveys urine from the kidneys to the ureters<\/strong>, essentially forming their origin<\/li>
- Pararenal (or paranephric) fat<\/li><\/ol>\n\n\n\n
- Left kidney<\/strong> \u2014 Stomach, spleen, pancreas, jejunum, descending colon<\/li>
- The right kidney is slightly lower (due to the presence of the liver)<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n<\/span>\n
- The left kidney is located at the level of T12 to L3<\/strong><\/li>